Beowulf's placement and Wulfgar's use of "you" (ll.389b-398) [Old English]

Abstract
Translation
Recordings
Are they in or out?
Oh, "eow"...
Closing


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Abstract

Wulfgar runs to Beowulf and the Geats, bearing word of their being accepted by Hrothgar.

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Translation

                 "Then to the hall door
went Wulfgar, from within this word was called out:
'You as commanded by word of my war lord,
prince of the East-Danes, that he knows of your family:
and you to him are from over the sea-wave,
proven brave, welcome hither.
Now you may go in wearing your armour,
under your helmets, to see Hrothgar;
yet here unbind and leave your shields,
broad boards, and deadly spears, this is a meeting for      words alone'"
(Beowulf ll.389b-398)
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Recordings

Old English:

{Forthcoming}

Modern English:

{Forthcoming}

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Are they in or out?

This scene reminds me of Dorothy's arrival at the Emerald City in The Wizard of Oz. I can very vividly picture Wulfgar popping his head out of a window cut into Heorot's door and calling down to Beowulf that he and his Geats are allowed in.

The trouble with that is that they've already taken seats at benches. So are those benches outside on Heorot's lawn (perhaps the setting for a now lost epic poem about lawn bowling) or are they in some sort of antechamber?

We are told, when the Geats arrive, that they lean some of their gear up against a wall ("sea-weary they set their shields aside,/battle-hard bucklers, against that hall's wall;" ("setton sæmeþe side scyldas,/rondas regnhearde, wið þæs recedes weal," (ll.325-326))). The benches (the exact word used is "bence" (l.327)) that they sit on are also vague. In the former case it seems as though they're outside and have set their weapons up against the hall's outer wall. The non-descript benches could also be outside (the word used isn't "medu-benc" ("bench in a meadhall") after all).

But then what can be taken from Wulfgar's mentioning the conditions of their meeting with Hrothgar; namely that they are to leave their shields and spears outside?

Doing so could be an act of trust. It might be a way for the Danes to tell if the Geats are with honour and honesty. If they're willing to leave the tools of their trade in the open, it shows that they see the Danes as no threat to their gear and that they believe that their equipment will be well kept for them.

If the Geats are still outside it definitely explains why the poet/scribe hasn't said more about the Danes' reaction to them. They are still new arrivals in this land and do not yet have the ability to freely enter and exit it. In effect, they need to leave part of themselves outside in order to gain access.

Though that does leave them with their swords.

But, as poetic as this all is, I can' help but thiwael-sceaftasnk that the Geats are free to bring in their swords because these items are more status symbol than weapon.

Claiming to be someone's son could only go so far, carrying your father's sword would confirm your lineage. Along with whatever family resemblance there might be of course.

Not to mention, swords seem to have a much richer life as the weapon for single combats and particularly tough spots in battles. The compound for "spear" that appears on line 398 suggests that that weapon is much more regarded as the brutal tool of human destruction. The word "wælsceaftas" literally translates as "slaughter/carnage spear," leaving little doubt as to their efficacy in mass combat.

Unless, behind all of this praise of spears, is a particularly boastful poet/scribe who thinks that the Danes and Geats were terrible swordsmen.

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Oh, "eow"...

English has never been a tonal language. The difference between Old English and even Middle English (what Chaucer and Gower wrote in) is wide since the former is a synthetic language and the latter is much more of an analytic language, but even so. English has always been English.

Though, curiously, Old English seems to have more context-sensitive words.

The first word in Wulfgar's speech, for example, is "eow."

Seamus Heaney translated this as "my lord" and Francis Gummere translated the word simply as "to you" (l.391). From the original it's clear that Wulfgar is addressing Beowulf directly. But even if he is a stranger, it seems as though more formality should be applied than that contained in "eow." A nice "ðu" (modernized as "thou") would be better suited.

Unless Wulfgar, in conveying Hrothgar's message of extreme welcome, is dialling it back a bit because he's wary of this fierce band claiming to be from Geatland.

As Hrothgar's herald Wulfgar has no doubt seen his share of warriors coming to them with hopes of ridding Heorot of Grendel only to have those hopes plucked from them like legs from a spider. And maybe Wulfgar's sick of seeing the flower of youth trampled in this way. All of the men of courage are throwing themselves at a problem with no clear solution and leaving the world filled with layabout rogues.

Of course, even for someone with a master's degree in English, that's a lot to pull out of a single "eow." Wulfgar could also just be adjusting his address to something more casual because Beowulf and his fellow Geats are entering the Danish social hierarchy with a reputation for courage but no first-hand proof of it. "Eow" is thus used because the Geats have yet to become worthy of the daintier "ðu."

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Closing

Next week Beowulf and a select few of the Geats crowd into Hrothgar's hall.

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On Danish welcomes and curious compounds (ll.381b-389a) [Old English]

Abstract
Translation
Recordings
Danish welcomes
The case of the curious compounds
Closing


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Abstract

Hrothgar finishes his command to Wulfgar, imploring him to make sure the Geats know that they're welcome.

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Translation

                 "'He holy god
for our support has sent
to the West-Danes, this I believe,
against Grendel's terror. I shall well reward
them with treasures for his courage.
Be thou in haste, go with this command,'"
that the peaceful host may hear it together.
Also give him word that they are welcome
in these Danish lands!'"
(Beowulf ll.381b-389a)

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Recordings

Old English:

{Forthcoming}

Modern English:

{Forthcoming}

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Danish welcomes

Hrothgar very clearly wishes to greet the Geats with glee. From his abbreviation of what he will reward Beowulf and the Geats for down to simply "his courage," that much is clear. Hrothgar's speech continues to be dusty (though I've done some modernizing with his syntax), but the energy in his speech nonetheless comes through. His line of thinking can even be seen.

It looks like it runs thusly:

Beowulf is rumoured to have the strength of thirty men in his grip and is famed in war (from last week's translation and commentary). He is god-sent, and has courage, therefore he cannot fail and will be rewarded. Not to mention, we can prepare him for his fight with Grendel with a warm welcome.

But what if Hrothgar was not so inclined to the Geats? What if he had never heard of Beowulf, nor of his father? How does the Danish lord deal with those whom he believes to have no chance against Grendel?

Based on his imploring Wulfgar to make sure that the Geats know "that they are welcome/in these Danish lands!" ("þæt hie sint wilcuman/Deniga leodum." (ll.388-389a) (which sounds almost as if he's asking Wulfgar to communicate this welcome in every word), a cold reception would entail a cold welcome.

That sounds obvious enough.

But would that mean an ejection from the hall? An outright attack? The Geats have come quite heavily armed, after all. Such a violent reception could be expected. Though the Geats did respect whatever etiquette exists in putting their spears and shields to the side of the door when they came in. Swords may have been worn as a last line of defense, or as a mark of nobility, though, and so be perfectly allowed even in a hall. Or maybe the Geats didn't want to drop their guard entirely. We aren't exactly told that all of the Danes in the hall are wearing swords (or if any are, for that matter).

So a hostile reply would likely be a formal request to leave the hall and return whence they came.

In point of fact, aside from Wulfgar's being told to warmly welcome them and that they'll eventually be rewarded for their courage, we're not really told what a warm Danish welcome entails. Is this the poet/scribe using some telling to set up a bunch of showing?

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The case of the curious compounds

Old English compound words are usually very straightforward. There's some phenomenon or item that is more specific than the usual words for it have connotation to cover and so two words are combined. For example, there's "sorg" for sorrow, and then there's "modsorg" for the more intense "heart-sorrow."

Such compounds make sense because they are the sum of their parts.

But in this week's passage there are two compound words that are more than the sum of their parts.

The word "arstæfum" is Old English for "support," "assistance," "kindness," "benefit," or "grace." It is made up of "ar" ("servant," "messenger," "herald," "apostle," "angel") and "stæfum" ((singular, stæf) "staff," "stick," "rod;" "pastoral staff;" "letter," "character," "writing;" "document;" "letters," "literature," "learning"). Maybe to Anglo-Saxon minds the herald or apostle of writing, literature, or learning are a support or a benefit, but I'm willing to bet that to most modern minds that connection isn't as immediately made as "mod" and "sorg" being "heart-sorrow."

Nonetheless, there is the religious and poetic combination of "benefit" (or "grace") and "pastoral staff" which sounds like just what Hrothgar is talking about when he states his belief that Beowulf has been sent by god. So perhaps this word isn't as literal a compound word as most others, but instead results from the combination of the senses of its two parts.

A similar case could be made for "mod-þræce" meaning "courage."

This word is a combination of "mod" ("heart," "mind," "spirit," "mood," "temper;" "arrogance," "pride," "power;" "violence") and "þræce" ("throng," "pressure," "fury," "storm," "violence," "onrush," "attack"). With such individual meanings combining it's hard to see how these two words combine into one that means "courage." Especially since modern everyday courage could be described as a "violence of the spirit," but generally doesn't happen in violent circumstances. As such, this compound sheds some light on the world from which it comes. Courage then may have included standing up to a bully as it does now, but then the follow through was much more likely to be a violent clash of one sort or another.

Though, that's just one interpretation.

It's also possible that combining such words to mean courage is meant to add a slightly negative connotation to the word. Perhaps "mod-þræce" isn't intended to refer to a clean and tidy courage, but something more akin to the boldness of a berserk state. A kind of controlled fury. Something that even the poem's early audiences well knew was dangerous, but that was also contained and controlled - for the most part.

Anyone with the strength of thirty men in his grip must have been considered at least a little bit monstrous even then after all.

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Closing

Next week, Wulfgar rushes back to the Geats to relay Hrothgar's message.

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Hrothgar as grammatical relic and Beowulf's grandfather? (ll.371-381a) [Old English]

Abstract
Translation
Recordings
Hrothgar as relic
Ambiguity in spelling
Closing


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Abstract

Hrothgar speaks, acknowledging Beowulf's parentage and his reputation.

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Translation

"Hrothgar spoke, protector of the Scyldings:
'I knew him when he was a boy;
his father of old was called Ecgtheow,
Hrethel of the Geats gave to him
his only daughter; now I hear his son
has come here, seeking favourable friendship.
Once sailors, that brought gifts
from Geatland thither as thanks,
said that he has the might of
thirty men in his hand-grip,
famed in war**.'"
(Beowulf ll.371-381a)

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Recordings

Old English:

{Forthcoming}

Modern English:

{Forthcoming}

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Hrothgar as relic

Beowulf is an old poem. Whether you agree with those scholars who place its creation as a written piece of literature sometime around the eleventh century or with those who place it around the seventh, it's still an old poem. As such, many early translations of it gave it a very authoritative "thee and thou" sort of tone. Take this passage from Francis Gummere's famed Edwardian translation, for instance:

"HROTHGAR answered, helmet of Scyldings: --
'I knew him of yore in his youthful days;
his aged father was Ecgtheow named,
to whom, at home, gave Hrethel the Geat
his only daughter.'" (ll.371-375a from gutenberg.org)

It sounds like an old poem. Yet, if you compare that to Seamus Heaney's much more recent translation of the same passage it seems a little younger:

"Hrothgar, protector of Shieldings, replied:
'I used to know him when he was a young boy.
His father before him was called Ecgtheow.
Hrethel the Geat gave Ecgtheow
his daughter in marriage.'"
(ll.371-375a from Seamus Heaney's Beowulf)

The difference is clear in Heaney's preference for a more common, everyday syntax.

Interestingly, though, Hrothgar's dialogue tends more towards Gummere's version.

Alliteration is a major feature of Old English poetry. Don't ask why rhyming hadn't caught on as much, no doubt it had to do with the sounds that English used at the time. When you learn to read Old English it isn't a very sing-song tongue after all. But even keeping in mind the frequency of alliteration in the main text of Beowulf, Hrothgar really puts this poetic device to use. What's more, he seems to really like the first sound of his name since much of the alliteration in his dialogue is "h" alliteration.

Perhaps littering his lines with "h" alliterations was the poet/scribe's way of showing which lines were Hrothgar's. Early writing was pretty scant on punctuation marks, and readers would much appreciate that sort of signal whether they were reading aloud or more silently to themselves.

But what Hrothgar's taste for alliteration signals to me is that even in the world of the poem he's a relic. Even some of his syntax is so much like Gummere's translation that I'm left wondering if the original poet/scribe was actively copying a kind of old, poetic style for the elder Dane. I mean, lines like

"ðonne sægdon þæt sæliþende,/þa ðe gifsceattas Geata fyredon/þyder to þance, þæt he XXXtiges/manna mægencræft on his mundgripe"

would translate literally as

"Once said of him sailors,/those that gifts from Geatland brought/thither as thanks, that he thirty/men's might has in his hand-grip" (ll.377-380).

Word order is shuffled, and clauses are delayed into a strange arrangement. It's almost as if Hrothgar is a living link to an earlier time in the world, a time that is ending just as Beowulf's own era is beginning. No wonder Hrothgar came across as depressed in last week's entry.

But perhaps that's the point. Amongst all of the battles and the monsters Beowulf is positioned as a figure of transition. From the old ways to the new. From the old gods equated with "the soul-slaying fiend" (l.178) to the new "Lord" who keeps saving Beowulf's bacon as he gets it ever closer not to the frying pan but to the flames.

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Ambiguity in spelling

Old English's lack of regulated spelling makes translation difficult at times. Most modern editions of texts will have some degree of standardization to their spelling, but there are still some outlier words. Take for example line 373's "ealdfæder."

Translated literally, I would render this compound word "old-father" possibly even "grandfather." Such a translation isn't out of the question, since "ealdfæder" could be a variation of "ieldrafæder," the Old English word for "grandfather."

However, in the context that "ealdfæder" appears, such a translation is troublesome. This difficulty comes up because the word refers to Ecgtheow who is Beowulf's father and most certainly not his grandfather.

It's a tiny detail, and, to be honest, "ealdfæder" is probably in that line simply to alliterate with "Ecgtheow." But nonetheless, it's a bit disorienting to come across such a word when you expect a simple "father" to come up.

Heaney changed "father" to "father before him" in his translation, and I think that's a great choice. It sets this appearance of Ecgtheow's apart from the others, and also acknowledges the element of time inherent in "ealdfæder." It's the same reason that I appended "of old" to the word, despite the ambiguity this phrase brings into the matter. Namely, was Beowulf's father once called "Ecgtheow" but is now called something else? Or is Ecgtheow now long dead and hence is himself "of old"?

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Closing

Next week Hrothgar concludes the message he sends back to Beowulf via Wulfgar.

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On Hrothgar and "equipment" (ll.356-370) [Old English]

Abstract
Translation
Recordings
Hrothgar as depressed Dane
Noble customs and "equipment"
Closing


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Abstract

Wulfgar brings Beowulf's petition to Hrothgar. His tone makes a positive reply seem like a long shot.

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Translation

"Then quickly he turned, to face where Hrothgar sat,
old and hoar among the throng of his thanes;
he went to the one of honourable deeds, stood shoulder to shoulder
with the Danish lord: knew he their noble customs.
Wulfgar spoke to his friend and lord:
'Here are those who came, who ventured
forth going over the sea from the Geatish lands;
their chief champion
they call Beowulf, he is the petitioner,
the one asking, my lord, if he might mix
words with you. Do not propose to deny
your reply, gracious Hrothgar:
by his war-gear I think their worth
that of esteemed warriors; indeed he seems dependable,
the one warrior who has lead them so far.'"
(Beowulf ll.356-370)

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Recordings

Old English:

{Forthcoming}

Modern English:

{Forthcoming}

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Hrothgar as depressed Dane

Is this speech a sign of Wulfgar's knowledge of the Dane's "duguðe þeaw," ("noble customs" (l.359)) or is it an honest plea to a forlorn lord?

The honorifics ("my lord" ("þeoden min" (l.365)), "gracious Hrothgar" ("glædman Hroðgar" (l.367))) seem like things said as parts of Wulfgar's addressing Hrothgar. They sound like what's required of someone lower speaking to the highest ranking individual in the Dane's hierarchy.

But, it's hard to read Wulfgar's imploring Hrothgar to "not propose to deny/your reply" ("No ðu him wearne geteoh/ðinra gegncwida" (ll.366-67)) without hearing an imploring note. There's something in those words that speaks to the Dane's desperation. Perhaps Hrothgar has fallen into a depression after seeing so many warriors fall to Grendel's might. Or, as Neil Gaiman would have it, Hrothgar is covering up some past misdeed of his with sorrow.

I believe that Hrothgar has fallen victim to depression.

Sitting amongst his warriors he's no doubt reminded of how he valiantly fought to bring peace to his lands. And, being surrounded by those who are enjoying themselves in Heorot, he is no doubt reminded of the efforts that went into the construction of that glittering mead hall. And yet, empty seats all around him bring phantoms into his vision, ghosts of the past that hang off of his memory like overripe apples heavy with both savour and with worms.

Anyone in that state of mind is likely to wave away petitioners and those willing to help without a further thought. Hrothgar seems to have no reason to look out from the past, he has nothing to look forward too, after all.

Anyone in that sort of state would need someone like Wulfgar to talk them back to the present. Someone to inspire some hope in them, as Wulfgar attempts to. And, as we'll see next week, there are hints that Wulfgar's mentioning Beowulf's name and his merit in bringing his fellow Geats so far that the attempt is successful. Hrothgar brightens - but stays well within the bounds of the customs of the nobility.

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Noble customs and "equipment"

As high and noble as the customs of a ruling host may be, they bear a striking resemblance to the customs of modern day politicians. Both are full of seemingly empty words.

At least for our scholarly purposes, there aren't many words of great interest in Wulfgar's speech.

Even the words used for "noble customs" (l.359), "duguðe þeaw," isn't necessarily all that interesting.

The first word in the pair means "body of noble retainers, people, host, the heavenly host, strength," and the second means "usage, custom, morals, morality." So, like most other systems of conduct, there's a suggestion of the Danes' system having a higher origin (translating the phrase as "the custom of the heavenly host"). There's also, perhaps reflecting poorly on Beowulf's time to our modern eyes, the translation "the custom of strength," that could be construed as "might makes right." Curious how heaven and power have that sort of relation - however distant.

More interesting in an archaic sort of way, part of the word "getawum" ("war-gear" (l.368)) once had a different meaning. This sense of "taw-u," the root of "getawum," once meant "genitalia" (along with "apparatus, and "implement"). But, even to Beowulf's early audiences, I'm willing to guess whatever sense of "genitalia" was inherent in "getawum" was a distant echo, something that only the scholarly among them would catch.

Nonetheless, maybe this sense (or the spirit?) of "getawum," after some major transformations, came to rest in modern euphemisms like "bait and tackle."

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Closing

Next week we hear Hrothgar's whispered reply to Wulfgar, and perhaps see the first stirrings of hope in this downcast ruler of a people.

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Progressive early medieval religion and why that word? (ll.348-355) [Old English]

Abstract
Translation
Recordings
Going deep into a short passage
Wulfgar's wisdom
Closing


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Abstract

Wulfgar gives a bureaucratic and ordered reply to Beowulf's request.

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Translation

"Wulfgar spoke: a Wendel man,
well known for his heart-thought,
of war and of wisdom: "'I the friend of Danes
will inquire of our shield,
giver of rings, as thou art a petitioner,
of that famed lord, about your journey,
and then the answer I shall convey immediately,
that I may speak as it so pleases him.'"
(Beowulf ll.348-355)

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Recordings

Old English:

{Forthcoming}

Modern English:

{Forthcoming}

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Going deep into a short passage

This week's passage is no shorter than last week's, but it seems less dense. Maybe I see it this way because Wulfgar isn't a character of action.

Presented in his role as Hrothgar's herald, he is very definitely installed in the Danes' hierarchy and his actions are defined by his place in it. Therefore, his actions seem less interesting than Beowulf's since he isn't acting as an outsider trying to get into the Danes' society. Instead he is already very much an integral part of that society.

That said, Wulfgar is portrayed as a nearly perfect front for Hrothgar. We're not given much of his conduct, but it's easy to picture (quite anachronistically) Wulfgar dressed up in a suit with a smartphone and briefcase acting as Hrothgar's PR guy. Beowulf has put in a petition and Wulfgar's now about to send this request up the line since he sees nothing wrong with it.

Speaking less anachronistically, you could make the case that this relationship, free from emotion as it appears to be, mimics that of god and god's scribe in the Hebrew tradition: The angel Metatron.

Of course, Hrothgar's realm being ravaged by Grendel does not make him out to be a very capable god. Though it is interesting to think of that situation representing the poet/scribe's take on the pagan gods of the Anglo-Saxons: Old, hoary men who have passed their glory years and are in need of a hero to come in and save them - and eventually to supersede them.

It's jumping quite a ways ahead, but there are some who believe that Beowulf is a kind of Christ figure at points in the poem. Combine that with the Anglo-Saxons' taste for the story of Exodus (and no doubt god's struggle against rival gods in that book and the rest of the Old Testament) and it's rather tempting to see Beowulf as the Anglo-Saxons' take on a hunky young god going around showing up and taking down all of the other gods among which people's attentions are split.

Of course, for this reading of Beowulf to work entirely you'd need to figure out what the God-Beowulf's very definite death could mean. Maybe the Anglo-Saxons, with a concept that their own gods could pale and die in comparison with the Christian god also believed that eventually the same would happen to that new Christian deity.

Of course, that's nothing but pure speculation. The sort of speculation that has little to no basis in what we know about Anglo-Saxon religion, since it's hard to say who first uttered the thought that Neitszche would write at the end of the nineteenth century, "God is dead."

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Wulfgar's wisdom

Getting back to Wulfgar and his role as Hrothgar's herald. Wulfgar's entirely by the book. He says that he'll ask for Hrothgar's take on the matter (using all due honorifics), that he'll bring answer back immediately, and then that he'll speak as it so pleases Hrothgar. The poet/scribe really goes all in to show just how fastidious Wulfgar is in all this.

So much so that I don't think the translation of of "mod-sefa" as simply "thought" is good enough.

Instead, I think this is a situation that calls for a literal translation from "mod-sefa" to "heart-thought."

Why? (You may ask.)

Because of the clause that follows: "of war and of wisdom" ("wig ond wisdom" (l.350)). Being renowned for "thought" just doesn't suggest a man who is supposed to be wise in the matters of both war and of peace. Instead something that strikes a bit deeper, like "heart-thought" seems better suited. Not because his thoughts are necessarily borne of passion, but because they are a combination of instinct and reason.

This interpretation of "mod-sefa"s meaning might be a bit much, but I really think that's what the word means in situations like this.

Although it's not stated, Wulfgar is likely an older man, one who has seen many battles at Hrothgar's side and no doubt been with him for many social functions. As such I think it's safe to say that he has internalized a great deal of knowledge. With such a store of knowledge, much of it is likely instinctual, and so Wulfgar's able to bring it forth from his instinct and then temper it with his reason. Thereby making his council sharp as a sword and tough as steel plate.

"Heart-thought" seems the perfect fit.

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Closing

Next week, Wulfgar delivers Beowulf's request (in a passage longer than eight lines!).

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Beowulf's rhetoric (ll.340-347) [Old English]

Abstract
Translation
Recordings
Introductory patterns
Is there a mic in that helmet?
Closing


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Abstract

Beowulf replies to Wulfgar with his origins, but masks his purpose with formality.

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Translation

"'One man among them courageously answered,
the proud man of the Weders, spoke after those words,
bold beneath his helm: "We are Hygelac's
table-companions; Beowulf is my name.
I will explain to the son of Halfdane,
that famed lord, my errand,
your prince, if he will grant us such,
that we may greet him graciously.'"
(Beowulf ll.340-347)

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Recordings

Old English:

{Forthcoming}

Modern English:

{Forthcoming}

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Introductory patterns

Despite the brevity of this passage, there are some things that can be said about it.

Not the least of which is the continuation of a pattern we've seen before.

In 6 February's entry (in which Beowulf introduces himself to the coastguard, ll258-269), we saw that Beowulf didn't just say outright "I am Beowulf." Instead he introduced his group as friends of Hygelac's, and then introduced himself primarily through his father.

Once again, Beowulf introduces the group first, with a similar line explaining their relationship with Hygelac (l.342). But then, instead of introducing his father and merely claiming to be his son, we hear Beowulf say for the first time in the poem that takes his name, "Beowulf is my name" ("Beowulf is min nama" (l.343)).

Surely the herald of a great prince like Hrothgar commands more respect than a coastguard?

So then why does Beowulf simply give his own name (a name which makes no reference to his father)?

My theory is that this has to do with the intimacy of the hall setting.

Although this conversation is still very formalized, Heorot is nonetheless a place of leisure. It's where Hrothgar and his thanes hang out and trade treasures and stories between battles and forays. The hall would even draw strangers into Hrothgar's hospitality, at least, were it not for Grendel. As such, Beowulf has no need to show his "son of" card just yet.

Even so, the other curious thing about Beowulf's shift in tone is that he keeps his purpose for from Hrothgar's herald. Instead of declaiming for all to hear, "I am Beowulf! I'm here to kill your monster" (as a cg'd Ray Winstone did), he says that he'll reveal just what his purpose is when he speaks to Hrothgar.

I think this feint is meant to show Beowulf's social acumen. In a hall besieged for twelve years by some seemingly invincible terror, anyone (especially anyone as young as Beowulf's supposed to be here) coming around claiming to be there to deal with Grendel is likely not going to be believed. Likely, for most of those twelve years such an approach hasn't been useful. Those who did come in with boasts blaring were probably laughed out of the hall.

And once you've been laughed out of something it's all the harder to win glory there.

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Is there a mic in that helmet?

All the more so if you appear ridiculous. It might seem Beowulf would were he still wearing his helmet, as the poet suggests on line 342. But this detail appears to bolster his position.

Maybe it's all just to keep building up the mystery around these Geats among the Danes. The Geats' helmets are supposed to have cheek-guards, and you'd think that they would protect the helmet's wearer from sight as well as blows.

Or perhaps the poet is engaging in a bit of embellishment. Painting Beowulf into a bit of a caricature of a warrior. He keeps his helmet on so that he can be ever vigilant. Or maybe because it's simply the outfit of a warrior and keeping his helmet on shows Beowulf's seriousness.

Regardless, I definitely think it's a poetic detail. Though his speaking "bold[ly] beneath his helm" could well be an image of sorts, suggesting that Beowulf spoke as deeply as if he were wearing a helmet. Maybe there's even something about Beowulf's tone itself being a source of protection in such an image.

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Closing

Next week, Wulfgar takes Beowulf's message and departs.

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Exile and bandits' weapon of choice (ll.331b-339) [Old English]

Abstract
Translation
Recordings
Finding community among exiles?
A word for spear
Closing


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Abstract

Hrothgar's herald questions the Geats' origins.

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Translation

              "Then a proud warrior
asked after those men's origins:
'Where come ye of the anointed shields,
shirts of grey mail and visored helms,
this crowd of spears? I am Hrothgar's
herald and officer. Never saw I this many men
from far away of such high spirits.
It seems to me that you for glory, not at all for exile,
yay for courage have sought out Hrothgar.'"
(Beowulf ll.331b-339)

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Recordings

Old English:

{Forthcoming}

Modern English:

{Forthcoming}

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Finding community among exiles?

Hrothgar's herald says something more than passing strange in what seems to be passing. On lines 336 to 337 he states that he has "Never [seen] this many men/from far away of such high spirits" ("Ne seah ic elþeodige/þus manige men modiglicran").

Given the fact that challengers to Grendel have probably dried up over the past twelve years of his reign of terror, it's fair to say that this man's probably not seen many foreigners lately.

Even when heroes in waiting were coming by Heorot, they were probably more grim and serious than the apparently boisterous Geats (though we're not really told this - maybe they were like giddy teenagers in the presence of some musical idol, all jostling together and too nervous to speak, and that's what their weapons jostling last week was all about).

So the herald probably speaks true. He never has seen so many foreigners and in such high spirits.

But the word he uses for foreigners ("elþeodige") could also be translated as "exiled people."

The difference between "foreigners" and "exiled people" may seem slight, perhaps. But if the herald mentions exiles here then his assertion just a few lines later that these men are not here for exile makes much more sense.

Translating "elþeodige" as "exiled people" also paints a curious picture.

The image of a group of exiles is, strangely, the perfect representation of the importance of community to Anglo-Saxons. Among them, exile was considered a fate worse than death.

Partially because being exiled meant that you lost your social standing and whatever came with it. But at least as much as that if not more, exile meant that you were cut off from the people with whom you shared an ipso facto relationship through blood. You didn't earn their trust, nor did you work for their friendship - ties of kinship were supposed to be the reliable ties that saw you through the hardships of life.

Being exiled cut you off from all of that, but at the same time, it wouldn't be impossible for exiles to meet while in their respective outcast states. That a group of exiles would find each other, and, one can only assume, band together under the common aegis of their exiles shows just how important having a group and belonging was.

All of that said, whether or not such a hypothetical band of exiles would be in high spirits because they had found new community is hard to say.

It's possible that their common state would cause these exiles to form a strong bond in which case high spirits would definitely be possible.

Though it's also possible that though their respective communities no longer regard them as members, the exiles would still see themselves as Angles, or Saxons, or Danes, or Geats. In which case, they would likely still hold the prejudices of these groups.

Whatever the case with such a group of exiles is, either their numbers or their spirits were great enough for Hrothgar's herald to believe these Geats before him to be not exiles but something else.

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A word for spear

Another extract, and another batch of crazy words. The craziest this week, though, has got to be "here-sceaft."

The second part of this compound word for "spear" might look familiar. It's the word that eventually became the name of a famed and funky 70s private detective. Shaft.

But the first part of "here-sceaft" is where meanings become bizarre. Standing alone, this word could mean "troop," "army," "host," "multitude," or "predatory band."

So the spear is very much the common man's weapon. All right. But then, since "here" can mean "predatory band" is it also the weapon of choice for bandits and thieves?

Logically, the answer would have to be yes.

If a spear was something that you could easily come by in Anglo Saxon England, then certainly it would be the scoff-law's preferred weapon. Swords certainly wouldn't be lying around, that's for sure.

Actually, pushing logic a bit further, is it possible that swords were harder to come by simply because smiths who could work such large pieces of metal were hard to come by? Or, more likely, forges that could get such a lump of metal hot enough were rare?

Because making a spear requires making nothing more than a little pointy hat for a stick (or you could forgo the hat and shave the stick to a sharp point).

Given the fact that the resources consumed in making a sword were that much greater than those used for a simple spear really makes me wonder if associating the spear with bandits (even at the level of language like "here-sceaft") and the commons was just another thing that elevated the sword to the point where it became a prestigious and noble weapon.

Clearly, if "here-sceaft" has the potential for negative connotations as I believe it does, then the cultural elevation of the sword had happened long before Beowulf was written.

But then, when?

At the very moment that someone working their forge to ridiculous heats threw in big long chunks of metal and wound up with something no other forge-user in the area ever thought possible?

When technology and manufacturing are so unrestricted as they are today it's hard to imagine something so simple as a long pointy piece of sharpened metal being impressive, but it certainly would've been when making such things was harder.

And it's easy to see, then, that something as low-tech as a spear could be associated with "predatory bands."

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Closing

Next week, Beowulf answers Hrothgar's herald.

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